The Civil Rights Movement paved the way for social equality weakening social disparities between Whites and minorities. However, racial inequality remains constant and consistent more than 50 years later. The Civil Rights Movement was stimulated by the Supreme Court case, Brown v the Board of Education. In 1954 Thurgood Marshall, lawyer for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored (NAACP), challenged the United States Board of Education on their policy promising separate but equal education for Blacks and people of color. Throughout the hearing, Marshall argued that, “separate school systems for Blacks and Whites where inherently unequal” (Brown v Board of Education 1954, n.p). Inequality in education presents a violation of 14th amendment rights granted in the U.S Constitution. Brown v Board of Education became a historical and landmark decision. The court determined that, “the constitutionality of segregation in public education… that such segregation is a denial of the equal protection of the laws”, (Brown v Board of Education 1954, n.p). The case encouraged social integration in American school systems. It also guarantees the right to free and equal education regardless of race or socioeconomic status. However, six decades after the decision public education continues to be racially segregated. In addition the education received in public institutions is not equal. Research conducted by Valerie Strauss found that, “initial school integration gains following Brown stalled and Black children are more racially and socioeconomically isolated today than at any time since 1970” (2014, n.p). This can especially be seen in public schools throughout American inner cities.
Studies show that Brown v the Board of Education was ineffective, (Strauss 2014). This is because the landmark case did not fully integrate inner-city schools, the main goal of Justice Thurgood Marshall and the NAACP legal defense team. Marshall was able to rid of the nation of the separate-but-equal clause to ensure all students receive an education that is equal to Whites. The landmark decision determined that segregation is unconstitutional and integration was enforced. Although it is illegal to reject students based on race, Brown does not guarantee that all schools are racially integrated. Furthermore, it does not guarantee that all American public schools are equal. This can be seen as the majority of American students attend racially segregated schools. In most schools, 70% of the student population is of the same race or ethnic background (APA, 2014). In addition, schools with large minority student populations do not offer basic course curriculum like Chemistry and advanced Algebra, (Rich, 2014). Due to these cases and others, racial inequality continues throughout the American school system. This is especially seen in metropolitan and urban areas. For this reason, “Brown was unsuccessful in its purported mission—to undo the school segregation that persists as a modal characteristic of American public Education today”, (Strauss, 2014, n.p).
A report conducted by the New York Times determined that, “racial minorities are more likely than White students to be suspended from school, have less access to rigorous math and science classes, and to be taught by lower-paid teachers with less experience” (Rich 2014, n.p). This indicates that high-poverty schools lack resources for educational achievement. It not only suggests racial inequality found in American public schools, but also racial segregation in education. The United States Department of Education agrees, “it is clear that the United States has a great distance to go to meet our goal of providing opportunities for every student to succeed”, (2014, n.p). This is because high-poverty schools lack adequate school curriculum, are more likely to retain bilingual students, and place heavy consequences on Black and Latino students through zero tolerance policies. However, most alarming, these short comings are dominated in inner-city schools that are segregated. It has created limited educational achievement and success for minority youth so much so that it has caused high dropout rates from Black and Latino students. Incidentally, schools with the highest dropout rates are centralized in “heavily minority high schools in big cities” (Orfield & Lee 2005, p. 5).
Racial disparities and inequalities observed throughout inner-city public schools are demonstrated through statistics. Research found that, “2 out of every 5 white students attend schools that are 90% White… reflecting substantial concentration of White students in certain areas, such as the suburbs of our nation” (Orfield & Lee 2005, p. 13-4). While suburban schools are majority White, suburban schools also have different courses and resources available. Suburban schools offer a larg variety of school curriculum, courses, and resources for extracurricular activities like music and fine arts. They also have advancements and tools of technology for learning and preparation for the high-tech workforce. Families that live in the suburbs, including White families, are more likely to achieve educational success such as a high school diploma and college degree. However, they are less likely to learn from or experience multiculturalism and ethnic diversity. This is because, “due to the severe White residential isolation in outlying suburbs, white students are the least likely group to attend truly multiracial schools” (Orfield & Lee 2005, p. 12). Segregation and racial isolation ensures that White suburbia stays White. It perpetuates segregation, racial inequality, stereotypes and assumptions placed on people of color. With the aid of segregated suburbia, it guarantees that White upper and middle class citizens remain out of touch with the realities of the multicultural society. Social isolation maintains segregation in education, housing, and the workforce throughout the generations.
Racial inequality within the American education system is a side effect of racial inequality observed in economy and housing. Studies produced by Richard Rothstein found “strong links between individual poverty, school poverty, race and educational inequality” (Orfield & Lee 2005, p. 6). This is because where people live determines the school students attend and the quality of education they receive. Students are mandated to attend schools assigned by a district or zone. However, when people of color are segregated into urban areas, it restricts students to these schools. Furthermore, it restricts student’s opportunities for success and future outcomes. “Extensive research demonstrating that Blacks and Whites with similar economic status live in dramatically different residential environments, with Blacks living in areas with higher crime rates, poor quality schools, higher poverty rates, lower property values, and severe racial segregation” (Sharkey 2013, p. 4). As a result of the social inequality observed within the American city, it creates a domino effect. Racial inequality has infiltrated the framework of multiple social systems and institutions. Race determines where families live, the education they receive, access to economy and the American workforce.
Most importantly, poverty plays a key role in housing and education. Researchers state that, “segregation has never been about race: segregation by race is systematically linked to other forms of segregation, including segregation by socioeconomic status, by residential location, and increasingly by language” (Orfield & Lee 2005, p. 14). This is observed as income determines where individuals live, their housing, and their community. When families live in poor neighborhoods, these communities receive little tax revenue or resources to improve the community. This limited economy also feeds into schools located in these areas. For people of color however, income has little effect on where families live. Especially for working-class and middle-class families of color, segregation and marginalization force families into poor neighborhoods. This was observed in studies conducted by Orfield and Lee which show that even when families make the same income, people of color were more likely to live in poor racially segregated neighborhoods, (2005). As a result, many of the educational institutions in these communities are not only highly segregated by race, but are also impoverished. “In the entire metro region, 97% of the schools with less than 10% of White students face concentrated poverty compared to 1% of the schools with less than a 10% minority student population” (Orfield & Lee 2005, p. 6).
Schools located in poor neighborhoods are known as high-poverty schools. High-poverty schools have negative education outcomes with poor academic achievement. Examples are few course options, curriculum, and resources needed to give inner-city students the opportunity they need for success. Scholars found that, “Blacks and Latinos are a disproportionate share of students with low socioeconomic status… so it is important to remember that class disadvantages may play a role” (Hochschild & Schen 2009, n.p). By understanding how inner-city housing and poverty influence where students go to school, more can be done to address segregation and education. It has to do with racial inequality not only in education but also discrimination and marginalization in urban housing. Poverty then not only affects the quality of life for families, but also the education that students receive. Although education is required and free to the public household incomes can have a strong influence on the quality of education.
Racial inequality and racism is an intricate part of American society. It’s observed throughout mainstream America as the country is heavily divided along lines of race, culture, and class. Treating people different according to income or culture shows how segregation has remained stubborn, multidimensional, and the significant cause of racial inequality in education, (Orfield & Lee 2005, p.5). A cultural melting pot, Americans represent different cultures, backgrounds, religions, and ethnicities. But when citizens do not fit into the White non-Hispanic, Anglo majority, they are most likely to be marginalized or oppressed. People of color are then subject to poor outcomes. Black, Hispanics, and some Asians are marginalized into poor communities and ghetto neighborhoods. Throughout the process of segregation, people of color are being isolated and the inner-city becomes the urban epicenter for multiculturalism. However American multiculturalism includes excluding certain people from equal access and opportunities. These include racial disparities in health, crime, education, and the American work force. The only way to improve these outcomes is to “make housing opportunities for low income, black, urban residents available in White middle-class suburbs”, (Strauss, 2014, n.p). Racial segregation must turn into racial integration. Suburbia and rural America must mirror diversity and multiculturalism observed within the inner-city. This can limit racial segregation observed throughout the country all the while encouraging integration and cultural awareness. This is best stated by Journalist from the Washington Post who cites, “segregated neighborhoods lead to segregated schools”, (Strauss, 2014, n.p). Integrating inner city neighborhoods is the key to integrating education. Integration can weed out gaps in funding and resources for school. Furthermore, it puts upper-class White students in contact with the multicultural society. Through integration, bias and stereotypes can be banished through understanding and awareness between cultures. Most importantly it can make sure that all Americans receive a quality education regardless race.
References
American Psychology Association. 2012. Ethnic and racial disparities in education: Psychology’s contributions to understanding and reducing disparities. Presidential Task Force on Educational Disparities. Available at: https://www.apa.org/ed/resources/racial-disparities.pdf
Hoschschild J.L, and F.X Shen. 2014. Race, ethnic, and education policy.Oxford Handbook of Racial and Ethnic Politics in America. New York: Oxford University Press. Available at: http://scholar.harvard.edu/jlhochschild/publications/race-ethnicity-and-education-policy
Orfield, G., and C. Lee. 2005. Why segregation matters: Poverty and educational inequality. UCLA: The Civil Rights Project. Available at: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/4xr8z4wb#
Rich, M. 2014. School data finds pattern of inequality along racial lines. New York Times, 21 March. Available at: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/21/us/school-data-finds-pattern-of-inequality-along-racial-lines.html?_r=0
Sharkey, P. 2013. The Inheritance of the Ghetto. Stuck in place: Urban neighborhoods and the end of progress toward racial equality. University of Chicago Press.
Strauss, V. 2014. How, after 60 years, Brown v. Board of Education succeeded- and didn’t. Washington Post. 24 April. Available at: https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-sheet/wp/2014/04/24/how-after-60-years-brown-v-board-of-education-succeeded-and-didnt/
U.S Supreme Court. 1954. Brown v. Board of Education. Washington, D.C. Available at https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/347/483
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